ОБРАЗЫ ВОЙНЫ: КОВИД-19 В НОМИНАЦИЯХ И КОНТЕКСТАХ МЕДИАДИСКУРСА

It is of language nature to react to different challenges including the situation in late 2019, when the world faced a virus which in a couple of months has spread all over the world, causing a huge, social, economic and medical turmoil in many countries. On 12 March 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO) announced the COVID-19 (short from “Coronavirus Disease”) outbreak a pandemic

Using this method means to think about things in the way of different categories. It involves imagining your challenge playing out in domains outside your own, and seeing what happens when you attempt to make new combinations. The approach assumes that you’ve begun synthesizing your verbatim notes (or raw data) by highlighting surprises over trends, taking special notice of their deep motivation to use your product/service

According to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is a cognitive process where characteristics of one object are attributed to another, making the second object appear as the first. Within cognitive linguistics, metaphor is seen as a way to understand one conceptual domain through another. This viewpoint can be summarized as conceptual domain A is conceptual domain B, creating a conceptual metaphor. The one object’s transferred to another. This means that metaphor is an analogy when we think that two objects similar to each other, have similar shape, color, value, position or type of movement. Metaphors apply one fragment of the worlds’ picture to another, and the further two categories, that the objects belong to, stand apart, the more emphatic the metaphoric contrast becomes. Whereas, pseudo-identification within one class of objects does not create a metaphor

Following Austin J. L., metaphors are not only semantic phenomena, but a pragmatic notion as well

Metaphors play a significant role in not only explaining familiar ideas but also in acquiring new knowledge. They help in grasping the essence of something by moving from an abstract perspective to a more specific one

Politicians use metaphors in mass media discourse to portray a state of affairs as problematic and future scenarios as solutions. They also use metaphors to represent out-groups (opponents) and in-groups (supporters)

The pandemic has influenced on most languages, especially on their lexical level. There are numerous studies devoted to multifaceted consideration of the lexis used during pandemic. For instance, there are researchers who study the derivational and lexical units’ functional aspects

Therefore, it is essential to analyze the nuances of political and media discourses, as they significantly influence public opinion. Discourse studies encompass authentic texts of any size, written or spoken, considered within their context

The World Health Organization intentionally chose a generic name for COVID-19 to prevent stigmatization and named it based on its characteristics

The term "virus" refers to a microscopic infectious agent causing diseases in humans, animals, and plants, with potential metaphorical connotations of poisoning the mind or soul

Historically, the word "corona" was associated with military distinctions, harking back to Latin origins meaning "crown" given to honor military service. This military connotation has resurfaced in the metaphorical nominations created by politicians and journalists. The authors have categorized these nominations into five groups, as shown in Table 1. In conclusion, understanding the linguistic and metaphorical dimensions of COVID-19 discourse in political and media contexts is crucial due to their significant impact on public perceptions and behaviors. Further research into metaphorical designations and the evolution of coronavirus language is needed to comprehensively analyze the linguistic landscape of the pandemic.

First, it is necessary to mention, that the nominations are connected with the place the virus originated from. At least three toponyms have been used in relation to coronavirus, namely, “Chinese virus”, “the China Virus” and “Wuhan virus”: “Trump has previously questioned China’s reported numbers of infections ... and referred to the outbreak as the “Chinese virus”

All of these toponyms were largely rejected by the international community. However, another nickname for the coronavirus has emerged in the media – "kung-fu". This term is related to Chinese martial arts and implies the dangerous nature of the virus. In fact, a White House official referred to the coronavirus as "kung-flu" directly

Other metaphorical nominations for the coronavirus have been forged using medical terms. When the disease was first discovered, it was referred to as a "mystery illness"

Another powerful metaphor used is "killer pandemic"

It's important to note that the use of these metaphors and nicknames reflects how the virus was perceived and understood at different stages of its outbreak. The evolving terminology demonstrates a shift in public perception, from initial curiosity to growing awareness of the virus's severe impact. Thus, this metaphor links coronavirus to devastating results of military actions. As the virus had been spreading over the globe, politicians began to understand its danger. For that reason, politicians and journalists called the virus a ‘threat’: “Then Trump insisted he hadn't seen January memos by a top White House official warning about the pandemic at the same time the President was dismissing it as a threat”

Threat noun:

1) something which is dangerous or hostile;

2) enemy forces;

3) a statement declaring a person’s intention to do harm

Besides, the virus is called the “challenge”: “...Germany... is facing its greatest challenge since the Second World War in the struggle against the coronavirus ...”, “There has been no such challenge to our country since German reunification – no, not since the Second World War II ...”

“Challenge” is another metaphor for coronavirus. Challenge, noun:

1) a stimulating task or problem;

2) a calling to account or into question;

3) the act or process of provoking or testing physiological activity by exposure to a specific substance

This definition of the word ‘challenge’ reveals the idea that humankind has to withstand a difficult test. What is more, it will show not only physiological and mental resistance, but it will also make people act. The metaphorical nomination also includes an adjective in superlative degree, which shows exceptional importance of the challenge. The immediate context, full of military words (Second World War, struggle), also intensifies that idea.

Also the politician called the virus “a historic task”: “This is a historic task – and it can only be mastered if we face it together”

The looming danger of the virus is also implied in the metaphor ‘insidious force’: “While Mr. Newsom noted that hospitalizations and patients in intensive care had decreased slightly from the day before, he said the number of deaths should serve as a warning that even as the weather warms ... the virus remains an insidious force”

1) strength or energy exerted or brought to bear : cause of motion or change : active power the forces of nature the motivating force in her life;

2) military strength

The fourth group of coronavirus nominations comprises such metaphors as ‘invisible enemy, unseen enemy, big unknown’. All this metaphors imply uncertainty, which frightens people: “... people are panicking in the face of a big unknown. But we have a rough idea about this virus; it is highly infectious, and not as deadly as SARS”

1) large or great in dimensions, bulk, extent, number, quantity, or amount;

2) of great importance or significance;

3) of great force; b obsolete: of great strength

And when people cannot identify how such a big thing or notion can affect their lives, usually they become afraid of such an uncertainty. Unknown, n. 2: something that requires discovery, identification, or clarification: such as a specimen (as of bacteria or mixed chemicals) required to be identified as an exercise in appropriate laboratory techniques

The given noun implies something, which people have never faced before. But this unknown puzzles people due to its importance and extent: As we see, the metaphor does not have strong negative connotation. The virus proliferation has prompted the appearance of such metaphor as ‘invisible enemy’: “Trump set out Tuesday to cement his image of a wartime leader facing down an "invisible enemy" at a dark moment as the country waits for the virus to peak ...”

Invisible adj. 1. If you describe something as invisible, you mean that it cannot be seen, for example because it is transparent, hidden, or very small. 2. You can use invisible when you are talking about something that cannot be seen but has a definite effect. Enemy adj.:

1) a national of a state which is at war with your own country;

2) a state which is at war with your own country

War noun 1. an armed conflict between nations

Hurricane n, a violent storm, especially in the western Atlantic ocean

What is more, coronavirus is called a “catastrophe”: “An outbreak of COVID-19 would be yet another catastrophe for war-torn Syria”

1) a disastrous end, bringing overthrow or ruin;

2) any great and sudden calamity, disaster, or misfortune;

3) a total or ignominious failure

The given metaphor reveals unexpected and devastating character of the virus, which causes suffering. Besides, coronavirus is implicitly compared with a nightmare: “Conflicting messages on when to reboot the economy, the need for testing and the possibility of a resurgence of the virus combined with Trump's effort to suppress facts that jar with his insistence that the end of a nightmare likely to last many more months is near”

As we see, epidemic is viewed as a frightening dream, which will fade away. And here again we see that there are military terms in the immediate context (war-torn) which intensify the metaphor. Another interesting metaphor, revealing other facets of this notion, compares virus with fire: “The President also openly clashed with his top public health officials on the likelihood of the virus returning for another assault in the fall – saying only "embers" of disease were likely that could be easily put out”

To decipher the metaphor, one should study the definition of the word “embers”: Ember, noun:

1) a glowing fragment (as of coal) from a fire especially one smoldering in ashes;

2) embers plural: the smoldering remains of a fire

This metaphor emphasizes, that coronavirus spreads like fire, burning everything on its way. But politicians hope to put it up soon (just like a nightmare).

What is more, the context includes general military terms, which also implicitly characterize coronavirus: ‘clash’ and ‘assault’. For example, the term ‘assault’ is used in the following meaning in the military sphere: Assault, adjective, designed for use in combat; noun, a final stage of an attack onto an enemy position; verb, to use force in order to occupy an enemy position

In this example we see military terms ‘combat troops’ and ‘front lines’ in the context, emphasizing that governments are taking offensive measures to defend people. Health workers are portrayed as combatants, when they are called ‘frontline staff’: “The Scottish actor described COVID-19 as 'an invisible enemy that are fighting every day on our behalf”. Thus, there is a war, with its participants and the area where the battle is taking place (‘war zone’): “He said: 'It's an absolute war zone and we're asking them to go and fight that war with no weaponry, no armour, and I'm sure it's going to get fixed in the coming weeks and months, but in that interim, what is happening right now, the threats that they face and the threat of them passing it onto their patients and their patients' families is huge, so you know every day that goes by without the correct PPE is an opportunity lost to save someone's life”

The given context is especially important, that the war is not equal, as people do not have effective ‘weapon’ and working protection (‘armour’) against coronavirus. The fragment “lost to save someone's life” is also an allusion to military actions (precedential situation) aimed to save the lives of civilians. In some contexts, measures taken to deal with the virus are called fight: “I believe we may be ineffectively fighting the contagion even as we are causing economic collapse”

And the interaction with the virus is portrayed as a battle, which implies a “prolonged engagement between large numbers of opposing troops”

The virus can cause even bigger pain through economy, as it will cause economic issues: “That imperils their ability to tighten and loosen restrictions as the epidemic shifts, which is fundamental to easing the economic pain”, “Governments will need to keep dispensing cash and bear the budget deficit pain – or accept virus consequences”

According to research, the discourse surrounding the coronavirus in politics and media utilizes nominations, primarily metaphorical ones, and contexts. These help politicians and journalists present the fight against the virus as a war, drawing from military discourse by incorporating terms and examples from previous situations.

The nominations discovered during the study were categorized into five groups. The first group consisted of nominations referencing nationality. The second group included nominations related to health issues. Threat-related nouns comprised the third group. Words denoting uncertainty formed the fourth group, while the last group encompassed nominations of uncontrolled notions and the aftermath they leave behind. These nominations largely conveyed people's attitudes towards the coronavirus in an explicit manner. In contrast, contexts provided additional implicit information about people's feelings and thoughts regarding discussions about the coronavirus. In Chinese media discourse, there was only one metaphor used prior to the official naming of the virus by the World Health Organization (WHO). This could be attributed to political reasons, as the government controls the media sphere and the coronavirus topic is highly sensitive. Therefore, they aim to maintain a neutral stance. However, there are metaphorical contexts of war employed to describe the efforts of doctors and related organizations.

The research findings indicate that both nominations and contexts suggest that the coronavirus is viewed as a highly dangerous enemy, with people engaged in a battle against it, framing the situation as a war. In English, the fight against COVID-19 is expressed through both metaphorical nominations and immediate contextual cues. On the other hand, in Chinese discourse, the combat with the enemy is primarily depicted through the context. Consequently, American and British media portray the coronavirus as an external enemy that has declared war on humanity.