СЕМАНТИЧЕСКАЯ ДЕРИВАЦИЯ ЗАИМСТВОВАНИЙ

Introduction

Borrowing is an essential way of creating new words, that involves the renewal of the structure and the language system. The term "borrowing" is viewed by the modern Linguistics paradigm in two dimensions, i.e. synchronous and diachronic. The synchronous dimension implies that the terms "a borrowing" and "a foreign word" are used as synonyms. The diachronic dimension implies the division of foreign units into those adapted by the language (borrowings) and undeveloped (foreign) units. The abundance of borrowings in the Russian language has led to the emergence of different approaches to their perception and interpretations: a) the lexicological approach that focuses on the differences in the senses of borrowings and their analogues; b) the stylistic approach based on the differentiation of borrowed vocabulary in accordance with functional styles; c) the epistemological approach revealing different approaches in the ideology of the word, mental images, as well as cultural differences. Following the definition of Grosjean, F. who views borrowing as “the integration of one language into another” [9, P  180] the author sees borrowing as a process of at least three stages which may be divided into three periods of (1) complete integration in the target language, (2) partial integration, and (3) no integration in the target language. The first and second types of borrowings may acquire orthographic, phonological, morphological and semantic changes. As a result of semantic evolution, the borrowed word typically acquires new connotative semantic components (hereinafter CSC) and becomes polysemantic.

Methods

The contrastive analysis of спикер – speaker was conducted based on the stages proposed by Sternin I.A. in the textbook "Semantic Analysis Of Words In Context" [5]. Our main focus was on the following features of the words analyzed: (1) derivational abilities and functions of the borrowed word and the native word; (2) semantic structures of the contrasted words registered in monolingual non-abridged dictionaries (See References); (3) frequencies recorded in the National Corpus of the Russian language and the British National Corpus; (4) semantics and forms of the collocations with words спикер and speaker. The author also applied the descriptive method presenting common and different features of the contrasted words; classification of the lexical material collected, syntactic modeling of collocations with the words спикер and speaker in English and Russian; the content and discourse analysis revealing additional associations, connotations, and functions of the words studied.

Discussion

The suggested algorithm of the contrasted words analysis meets the main principles of modern linguistics paradigm: 1) expansionism, manifested in integration of related fields, attracting theories, notions and schools outside Linguistics in connection with other sciences; 2) anthropocentrism with its focus on linguistic personality; 3) functionalism (or neo-functionalism), following which a researcher focuses on the functions of the language material studied; 4) the tendency of modern linguistics to find causes and reasons of language facts [4]. The methods applied in the study, i.e. descriptive, contrastive, syntactic modeling, content analysis are viewed by the author as essential in providing a complete analyses of the words. This research can be of a certain relevance for linguists who intend to conduct further comparative semantic studies in Linguistics, students majoring Linguistics, pre- nd in-service teachers of Russian and English.

Results

The semantic analysis of the meanings of words speaker and спикер fixed in dictionaries.

Longman Dictionary of  Contemporary English [10] defines the meaning of the word speaker as follows:

1. а рersоn whо is оr wаs speаking;
2. someone who speaks а particular language: (а French speaker, а fluent Russian speaker);
3. one who makes а public speech;
4. one who acts as а spokesperson ;
5. the presiding officer of а deliberative assembly ;
6. the device makes а sound louder  .

The English Dictionary Oxford Dictionary [12] denotes the word speaker as follows “а person who speaks а specified language” [usuаlly with mоdifier оr in cоmbinаtiоn].

The MacMillan Dictionary of the English language [11] interpretes the word speaker as “the person who conducts political debates”. It should be noted that the word is combined with a definite article and is written with a capital letter: the Speaker.

The research shows that in modern English, the word speaker may also be used in the meaning of a microphone or a critic, though, to the best of my knowledge, neither of the meanings is recorded in dictionaries. The OED though registers speaker as “short for loudspeaker” [12].

Having analysed the senses presented in Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian language [3] it can be concluded that the word спикер ‘speaker’ in Russian was borrowed from English in the XIV century, where the speaker is a suffixal derivative of the verb to speak formed by means of the suffix -er, which denotes the agent or instrument of action.

Analysis of the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language confirms the fact that the word speaker has been integrated into the Russian language. For example, the Etymological Dictionary of Russian [8] registers "the name of the president of the House of Commons in England, existing since the separation of the Parliament into two Chambers; the name means literally - the one who speaks, speaker "as one of the meanings of the word "спикер (speaker)". In modern Russian discourse the word speaker has two senses, similar to those fixed in the semantic structure of the word speaker. The Dictionary of Youth Slang [6] interprets the word speaker as: 1. The Chairman of Parliament or (in parliaments of some countries) chambers of Parliament; 2. A miniature loudspeaker built into computer's motherboard.

And only the Wiktionary [1] provides three possible interpretations to the word speaker. 1. polit. in a number of countries - the chairman of the Chamber of Parliament; 2. Polit., new. an authorized representative of a body; 3. Techn., the frog. the same as the loudspeaker, the speaker.

In Russian, the word спикер speaker, the chairman of the State Duma or the Representative of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation became quite frequent in modern Russian discourse. Collocations ‘Predsedatel Gosudarstvennoi Dumy’(‘Chairman of the State Duma’, Representative of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation and Speaker) is viewed as equivalent, but used differently, since the term спикер speaker is not used in Russian legislative papers, i.e..normative acts. The word спикер speaker is widely used on television and in mass media: newspapers, magazines. In official documents, the speaker is replaced by “Predsedatel palat Federalnoy Assamblei Rossiyskoy Federacii” Chairman of the chambers of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation or ‘Predsedatel Gosudarstvennoi Dumy’ Chairman of the State Duma.

The frequency of words speaker and спикер in British National And Russian National Corpora.

In the British National Corpus the word speaker is registered 8508 times. The analysis of the frequency of the word speaker in the Russian language on the basis of the Russian National Corpus showed that the word спикер ‘speaker’ as a noun is used in 947 (CSC-1,2,3) illustrations, the adjective спикерский (spikerskiy)(CSC -1) 24 times, and the noun спикерство (spikerstvo) (CSC- 1) 4 times.

Both languages – English and Russian – register derivatives with the prefix ex: ex-speaker – former chamber chairman, экс-спикер (ex-speaker) –former speaker / former representative of the State Duma.

The word speaker was assimilated in the system of the Russian language, as evidenced by the formation of morphological derivatives: spikerskiy (belonging to the speaker) and spikerstvo (the art of speaking, presening). In Russian, the root of the word speaker is ‘спикер’.

The main syntactic models of the words speaker and спикер.

In total, 38 free word combinations with the word speaker (CSC - 1,2,3,4,5,6) are registered in BNC, though the frequency of each differes..

The statistics of the types of attributive combinations of the word speaker allow us to conclude that the type of attributive combination constructed by the matching method is the highest frequency: A^adj + Kⁿ (CSC-2.3), in which the core(K - Kernal) component is a noun, and the dependent (A - Adjacent) component is an adjective.

In English, the word speaker in the indicated meanings is combined with the following words:

1. The word speaker in the meaning of "a person whо is оr wаs screaming a person who spoke or speaks"(CSC-1) is combined with the following adjectives: good ~ (11), interesting ~ (9), expected ~ (6), wise ~ (4).

2. The word speaker in the meaning of "someone who speaks a particular language: (and a French speaker, and a fluent Russian speaker) someone who speaks a particular language: (speaking French, fluent in Russian)" ( CSC-2) is combined with the following words, (7): native ~ (55), non-native ~ (9), fluent ~ (3), foreign ~ (2) , Russian (8) / English (17 ) / French (4) .

3. In the meaning of "one who makes a public speech, one who publicly acts" (CSC-3), the word speaker is combined with adjectives such as (8): guest ~ (67), the first ~ (24), keynote ~ (22 ), public ~ (15), speech of ~ (11) , soapbox ~ (7) or with nouns in the preposition: voice of ~ (6) or with a noun in the postposition: ~ discriminants (4).

The word speaker in the above sense is combined with the following verbs in the preposition (3): to applaud (21) ~, to be no ~ (12), to howl down (2) ~.

4. In the meaning of the chairman of the House of Commons, the speaker is a member of set phrases (LSV-5), (3): Speaker of the House (66), Speaker of the Parliament (30), Speaker of the House of Representatives (14).

In this meaning, as a modifier the word speaker is combined with nouns in the postposition (3): ~ post (40), ~ speech (32), ~ remark (27).

5. In the meaning of "the device which makes a sound louder" (CSC-6), the word speaker is combined with nouns in the postposition (5): ~ phone (33), ~ system (16), ~output (8) , ~ unit (3) or with adjectives in the preposition: 2-wаy ~ (4).

The word speaker may also be combined with the verbs in the postposition (1): ~ call (103).

The English language forms collocations of verbs with the word speaker in the meaning "the presiding officer of the deliberative assembly of the House of Commons" (CSC-5): to be the same of delegation (19), to vote for a ~ ( 12).

In Russian, the word спикер (speaker) (CSC-1.2) collocates with a number of words. The analysis of the statistics of the types of attributive collocations of the word спикер (speaker)  allows us to observe the highest and the lowest frequencies of the model Kⁿ. + Aⁿ..

In the Russian language, спикер (speaker) (CSC-1) in the meaning of the chairman of the State Duma or the representative of the Federation Council in the Russian Federation is combined with the following parts of the speech:

1. In the function of the subject of a sentence with adjectives. In total, six combinations of the word спикер (CSC-1) with adjectives were registered (14): бывший (ex) ~ (14), нынешний (current) ~ (8), новый (new) ~ (6), популярный (popular) ~ (3), хороший (good) ~ (3), временный (temporary) ~ (2), действующий (acting) ~ (2), избранный (elected) ~ (2), влиятельный (powerful) ~ (1), лучший (the best) ~ (1), главный (main) ~ (1), прежний (former) ~ (1), первый (first) ~ (1), красноречивый (eloquent) ~ (1 ).

2. The word speaker (CSC-1) functioning as an object is combined with 2 verbs: избрать (elect) ~ (21), выслушать (listen) ~ (7).

3. The word спикер (CSC-1) functioning as an object with a noun in the preposition (in total 18 free combinations of the word спикер with nouns were registered): пост (position) ~ (28), слова (words) ~ (22), кресло (chair) ~ (19), место ( seat) ~ ( 11), заместитель (deputy) ~ (9), обещание (promise) ~ (6), предложение (proposal) ~ (5), поездка (trip) ~ (5), отношение (attitude) ~ (4), роль (role) ~ (4), совет (advice) ~ (4) , ~ (4) выступление (presentation),  голос (vote) ~ (3), советник (counselor) ~ (2), речь (speech) ~ (1), титул (title) ~ (1), беседа (talk/conversation) ~ (1), время (time) ~ (1).

4. The word спикер (CSC - 2) functioning as an object with the noun in the preposition (in total, 5 free combinations of the word спикер with nouns): мнение (opinion) ~ (7), команда (team) ~ (6), выступление (presentation) ~ (4), речь (speech) ~ (1),  результат (result)  ~ (1).

5. The word спикер (CSC - 1) in the function of the subject with the noun in the postposition (in total 4 free combinations): Совета Федераций (the Council of Federation (36), Государственной Думы (the State Duma) (30), парламента (the Parliament) (15), палаты общин (the Commons) 13).

In the National Corpus of the Russian Language, 24 literary examples with the word " спикер " were fixed. The word "speaker" is combined with such words as: a post, an armchair, place, title, time.

Functions of words speaker in English and спикер in Russian.

Cпикер and speaker in Russian and English are used in the following functions:

1. Subject. In the Russian language CSC-1,2,3, in the English language - CSC-1,2,3,4,5,6.

2. Object. In the Russian language -CSC-1,2,3, in English - CSC-1,2,3,4,5,6).

3. Adverbial Modifier. In the Russian language - LCSC-1,2,3, in English -CSC-1,2,3,4,5,6.

Based on the analysis of the illustrations from the National corpus, it was found that the noun спикер in the Russian language functions as an object in 304 cases making up 74% of the total, in 95 cases ( 23%) it functions as a subject and in 13 (3%) – as an adverbial modifier.

In English, the word speaker functions as an object in 84 (54%), as a subject - in 50 (33%), as an adverbial modifier in 20 (13%) cases.

The revealed frequency of the functions of the words speaker and спикер make it possible to conclude that words are never used to address Speakers of the House. In all other cases, the words спикер and speaker appear in the functions of a subject and an object .

Conclusion

The findings reveal that in the English language discourse the word speaker plays an important role. The word спикер in the Russian language functions in two types of the Russian discourse: political (CSC-1,2) and technological inventions (CSC-3).

It can be concluded that it most frequently collocates with adjectives and is placed in preposition. Based on the semantic context, it is possible to identify which CSC of the word is used in a certain context. Verbs do not have the ability to differentiate the sense of the given word.

Based on the collocations of the word спикер, it can be concluded that the range of the lexical senses of the word спикер in the Russian language is narrow. The semantic context of the word speaker is broader in СSC-1, which implies collocations with adjectives in the preposition, verbs in pre- and postposition, nouns in the preposition.