ОБРАЗ РОССИИ И РУССКИХ В СОВРЕМЕННОЙ КИТАЙСКОЙ ПУБЛИЦИСТИКЕ (НА ПРИМЕРЕ ЖУРНАЛА “ШИЦЗЕ ЧЖИШИ”)

The imagology and Russia’s image studies: literature review

Fast globalization and regional cooperation between national cultures bring to life scientific studies of “the Other”, these studies tend to cognize and interpret different cultural processes of partner countries [2]. Imagology is interdisciplinary approach in humanities sciences which studies persistent stereotypes about “other” nations, cultures and countries from the point of view of another nation or culture.

In Russia studies on the image of China in Russia and on the image of Russia in China have been conducted by such history, political and culture experts as: S. Tikhvinsky [12] in Russian Academy of Sciences, sinologists U. Galenovich [3], [4], [5], A. Lukin [8], N.Ten [11]. But these studies “still cannot form a holistic perspective of Russia’s image in modern China, and can present only separate aspects” [11].

There are no studies on Russia's image in Chinese literature, particularly in reportage genre, except for works on theory and practice of translation of Russian and Soviet literature by V. Alexeev [1], famous sinologists L. Cherkassky [13] and M. Shneider [14]. The methodological approach of “the Other” image studies in literature is used by V. Zemskov [7], E. Papilova [9], O. Polyakov [10], but these studies don’t have direct relation to China.

Imagology in literary studies is the subject of works in English by M. Gamsa [6], [16], [17] from Tel Aviv University, he studies the life of Russian emigrants in China (Harbin) and problems of Russian literature translation.

Recently, there have been lot of studies on China’s image in foreign (generally, in American) reports. It proves that researchers in China pay a lot of attention to image studies. Among them there are Liu Linli [24], Liu Xunan and He Hui [25], Sun Youzhong [28], Yang Sunfang [34]. He Huixin [21], Li Suian [23] and Xu Hua [32] are studying the image of Russia.

Content analysis (both qualitative and quantitative approaches) is a common method of analysis of texts in imagology. But as each context is unique, and more and more new contexts appear, there can be no fixed rules to follow while interpreting a text. Thus interpretation process substantially cannot be objective.

Chinese reportage literature as a subject of study

Chinese reportage literature (“baogao wenxue”) is a wide range of texts on various matters and problems and of different scope and stylistics. The generic term “baogao wenxue” in Chinese consists of two words: “baogao” (report) and “wenxue” (literature), and could be translated as “reportage”. Baogao wenxue includes a lot of genres: newspaper column, interview, review, reportage, essay.

Analytic reportages combine logical and emotional ways of reflecting reality. The main feature of this type of text is that they have literature component (and thus can reflect the author’s opinion) and at the same time analytic discourse, scientific conclusions and even statistical data. Baogao wenxue gives a lot of material for studying “collective representations” [15] of “the Other” image, such representations are formed in the society by mass media.

This article studies representation of Russia and Russians in the popular Chinese journal “Shijie zhishi” (“Knowledge about the world”). The journal has been published since 1934 at about 100 thousand print copies twice a month. It covers foreign news and is especially popular among Chinese young people and intellectuals.

The time period of selected publications (2013 – the first half of 2014) can reflect the changes in Russian-Chinese relations since Xi Jinping became Chinese President. As many experts believe, this period is the best in political, economic and cultural aspects of Russian–Chinese relations. The Russia–China Strategic Partnership is experiencing rapid development, cooperation and mutual understanding are enhancing on all levels. But at the same time the relations between the people of the two countries could not be described as definitely positive.

At the initial stage of coding by quantitative content analysis methods, the 38 “Shijie zhishi” publications from the year 2013 (the total volume is 83 270 characters, the average volume of one publication is 2 250 characters) shows, that:

• prevailing genre of publications is analytic reportage (58%), thus the material for the futher interpretative analysis was selected from analytic reportages (Table 1);

Table 1 - Genres of publications about Russia in “Shijie zhishi” 

• The range of topics, covered by publications about Russia, includes mainly Russia’s domestic and foreign policy, economics, military issues, law and society, culture and personages (Table 2);

Table 2 - Range of topics covered by publications about Russia in “Shijie zhishi” (2013)

• The polarity of most publications is neutral and positive, but there also exist negative statements regarding Russia’s corruption and “imperial ambitions” in foreign policy (Table 3);

Table 3 - polarity of publications about Russia in “Shijie zhishi” (2013)

The analysis of the themes, topics, composition and linguistic methods was based on selecting in the text key words and expressions, which can implicitly and explicitly show the author’s position. Key words and expressions were selected by evaluation component in lexical units, which are mostly adverbs, adjectives and idioms serving as adverbial modifiers of manner or adjective constructions. Stylistically these words are mostly literary tropes and when used in figurative meaning, they can provide emphasis, and make the reportage more expressive.

The image of Russia and Russians in “Shijie zhishi” analytic reportages:

Themes, topics and images

The first characteristic of “Shijie zhishi” analytic reportages is that they report on actual and the most important events in the world. Such events include the 30th European Union-Russia Summit; preparations and holding of the XXII Winter Olympic Games in Sochi; the visit of Russian foreign and defense ministers to Egypt; Ukraine crisis; Crimean status referendum on March 16, 2014; political and economic sanctions against Russia by the United States and the European Union.

Each report usually interweaves several related themes. As a rule, these themes are linked logically, but often themes are also changed because of the author’s subjective position. For example, political situation before the Olympic games (political boycott of the Sochi Games by Western leaders) is seen in connection with cultural and religious factors, and the author believes that Russian Orthodox traditional values differ from Western Catholicism [18]. Another example, Russia athletes’ success in such kinds of sport as figure skating, artistic gymnastics and synchronized swimming are linked with the high status of Russian literature and arts in the world. The question whether Russia can withstand European Union sanctions is seen in relation to Russia national character.

Such subjective way of broadening the thematic register based on the author’s specific way of thinking shows that “Shijie zhishi” analytic reportages express authors’ individual attitude, just like in literature. This characteristic determines the principles and features of Russia’s image construction in analytic reportages. Still, even when objective and subjective ways of writing are combined together in one text, the ways of creating “the Other” image are repeated in different texts, as E. Papilova puts it, it’s “intertextual imagological motifs” [9].

These repeating motifs in Russia’s foreign policy image are: “using energy resources as a political tool”, energy resources became the subject of economic and politic “bargaining” between European Union and Russia [30], confrontation with the West and strategy cooperation with China [29]. Russia is no more “Ivan the Terrible” for Western countries [22], in this case the name of one of the most famous historical figures is used as a metonymy for the whole country and has an apparent ironical inflection. Such phrases as “Putin’s grand plans”, “Putin’s Russia” and “Putin’s era” explicitly or/and implicitly show how one concept can be replaced with the other (in these cases without subtext).

Russia’s economic image is created by such phrases as “unfavorable investment climate”, “monopoly” of Gazprom on European market, “drug smuggling”, “organized crime” as threats for doing business and travelling to Russia [30]. Russia uses energy resources as the main “trump card”, this motif also becomes repetitive.

The image is not independent in reportage; the system of images is developed in close relation to concept system. As the result, images and concepts not only duplicate but also enrich each other. Thus, the balance of image and concept determines composition characteristics of texts.

Composition

In most publications authors use concentric composition: starting from one event they analyze it on several conceptual levels and then return to starting point, thus the concept of the subject is presented more fully. An example of simple concentric composition can be seen in publications on “Crimean status referendum”: talking about referendum in Crimea – giving history reference on Crimea being a part of Russia – giving history analogies with other countries – returning to the recent referendum in Crimea [20], [26].

The publication on European Union sanctions against Russia has a more complicated composition structure. Interested parties cannot agree on the attitude to the Ukraine crisis, and it is seen as the main problem: the author discusses this problem fist talking about such concepts as political confrontation and economic dependence, and then discussing dualism of Russia’s domestic and foreign policy (“policy of double-headed eagle”) and Russian national character [22].

When describing the Opening Ceremony of the XXII Olympic Winter Games in Sochi the author adopts retrospective approach – first talking about Sochi Games, then returning to the 1980 Moscow Olympics, back to Soviet history and even further to more distant events of Russian history. Thus, the image of “Reviving Russia” with old sports and culture traditions is created [31].

Concentric and retrospective composition, unlike linear composition, creates more multivariate and many-sided images of Russia and Russians by making facts, events and concepts “revolve” on different levels around one problem.

Old and new stereotypes

The image of Russia in “Shijie zhishi” publications is based on cultural stereotypes. Russia and Russians exist in Chinese collective representations prima facie in frames of well-established ethno stereotypes.

• Russia is traditionally seen as a country only half-European, even confronted to the West (often in the binary opposition Russian orthodoxy – Catholicism)
• Russian national character is described by a commonly used animal metaphor “Russian bear”. Russians are described as a fearless nation of physical strength, Russians are ready to fight to the end (“a tooth for a tooth”), possess firmness and at the same time are frank, honest, and independent from outer pressure [22]
• There still exist ideas about “Russian threat” to the West and to the East: “Russia’s imperial revival”, Russia’s “geographical expansion” [18], [27].
• “Wild nature” image is counterbalanced by persistent stereotypes of art-oriented and literature-oriented culture: “Russian ballet”, “Russian music”, “the power of beauty and the beauty of power”, “desire for high arts”, “the great Russian literature” [31].

“Shijie zhishi” publications often use popular clichés – “soft power”, “Russia’s dream” (by analogy with “Chinese dream”), thus Russia is inevitably represented as similar to China. The image of similarity is also created by using specific Chinese culture concepts when speaking of Russia.

Stylistic methods

Authors often use traditional idioms when speaking about Russia in actual context. For example, 投桃报李 “send a plum to get a peach in turn” (in the meaning “return present for present”), when speaking about relations between Western countries and Russia [29]. Another example, 明日黄花“chrysanthemums after the Double Ninth Festival” (in the meaning of “things that are past their time”) when discussing perspectives of cooperation between European Union and Russia [22].

Russian energy resources are compared to底牌 “trump card” [27] and to the ancient Chinese sword breaker “jian” 杀手锏 (a kind of cold weapon, two swords with rectangular cross section, the fighter rotates them and makes lunges). Russia is also compared to “qi” vessel in the idiom 投鼠忌器 “spare the rat to save the dishes” (in the meaning “to hold back from taking action against an evildoer for fear of involving good people”) when the author talks about sanctions against Russia [33]. The idiom落花有意流水无情 “flowers fall in water to show their love, but running water is heartless” (often describes a man in love courting a woman who doesn’t know about his feelings) is used in political context for ironical and vivid representation of active Russia and passive European Union discussing cancellation of visa requirements [30]. Russia-Egypt relations are characterized as 再续前缘 “continued love started in last life” which refers to Buddhist reincarnation concepts [19].

There are some examples of witty usage of basic Chinese philosophy concepts such as “Dao” (“the real way”, “the highest principle”, “high moral”) and “Qi” (“air”, “spirit”, “energy”). The author admits that Russia’s actions in relation to Crimea were logically consistent, but at the same time points out that Russia has violated its own commitments and thus在道义上失了分 “loses moral” [27]. “Dao” concept, seen by Confucian as the main ethic principle is traditionally opposed to material substance “Qi”. The character 气“Qi” in the headline of Xue Li’s article美国替代俄罗斯向欧盟供应天然气，靠谱儿吗 “Will United States take the place of Russia in exporting natural gas to European Union?” is used in the meaning of “gas”, but at the same time in the article it has at least two other figurative meanings: “spirit” and “to have a quarrel”. Thus, the question in the headline is simultaneously an answer: “America won’t win the spirit battle with Russia”. “Qi” can also be interpreted by traditional Chinese philosophy as a symbol of material (United States, Russia), opposed to moral “Dao” (China), in this case “Qi” – “Dao” is basic binary opposition between “We” and “the Other”.

Chinese authors can also express their own position in relation to some events indirectly, by using the same element in several forms. For example, in one article the author uses the word “referendum” sometimes in brackets, and sometimes without them. In this way the author can express his attitude not towards this word, but to the situation in general.

An image is in a way a kind of a language game, and in some articles authors use the word game as a universal category word. For example, in the publication about Olympics, “game” (in Chinese the word game is used in such combinations, as “sports games” (“Olympic games”), “children’s games” , “adults playing children’s games” [31]. In the article乌克兰危机博弈：“底线”和“底牌” “Ukraine crisis game: defensive lines and trump cards” the author uses the metaphor “politics as a card game between Russia, United States and European Union” [27]. “Game” sometimes also transforms into “bargaining” as a kind of economic game [22].

Conclusions

Analysis of 10 analytic reportages about Russia in “Shijie zhishi” published during 2013-2014, proved that these articles include authors’ opinion on discussed matters, just like in literature. It shows in the selection of themes, composition, stylistics and language methods. Thus, methods and principles of literary imagology, which use literary as well as other research tools, such as content analysis, are most efficient for studying the ways of constructing Russia’s and Russians’ image in Chinese reportage. The main purpose of these texts is not only reporting on political, economic and cultural events, but also forming in China a certain attitude to these events.

Russia’s political image cannot be described as definitely positive or negative. The positive aspect of the image is that Russia is considered to be a strong and powerful country and its opinion must be taken into consideration. The negative attitude is related to Russia’s “expansion” tendencies, there are concerns about Russia’s “imperial ambitions”. It also includes corruption and security concerns. The economic image is also mixed. It presents Russia as an important player in world affairs. On the one hand, publications form the image of a re-emerged nation, on the other hand – the image of a country with unfavorable investment climate and security problems. Using energy resources as a tool of foreign policy is described neutrally. Cultural image of Russia is definitely positive; publications emphasize Russia’s rich, deep culture, its tolerance and the significance of Russia’s culture’s “soft power” in the world arena.

Chinese stereotypes about Russia are the basis of Russia’s image. Such stereotypes include Russia’s being a neither exactly Western, nor exactly Eastern country. Russia is an art-oriented and literature-oriented culture. Usage of clichés popular in Chinese mass media (“soft power”, “Russia’s dream”, and “re-emerging”) means that Russia is represented as China’s ally in world affairs. It is also represented in many metaphors and idioms, which are used when writing about Russia’s modern social, political and economic processes. Positive attitude to these events means that Russia is considered as “We”, and it depends on how close to Chinese cultural patterns Russia’s reality is. The negative aspects become the characteristics of “the Other”.