1. Introduction

Nouns constitute an essential and fundamental category of words in any language, playing a crucial role in the grammatical structure and semantic expression of linguistic systems. When engaging in the study of a language’s grammar, nouns and their derivatives are typically the first lexical categories encountered, serving as the foundational elements for syntactic and semantic analysis. The definition of nouns exhibits considerable consistency across languages. According to contemporary linguistic scholarship, a noun is a lexical category that denotes the name of an entity or concept. The term ‘entity’ here is employed in a broad grammatical sense, encompassing referents that address questions such as ‘who’, ‘what’, and ‘where’, among others. This broad definition allows for the inclusion of both tangible objects and abstract concepts within the noun category.

The classification of lexical categories, including nouns, can be approached from both traditional and formal grammatical perspectives. As noted by

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Nouns are typically categorized into two principal subtypes: common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns signify general classes of entities, whereas proper nouns designate specific individuals or entities. The analysis of nouns extends beyond their basic classification to encompass several morphological and syntactic features, including number (singular or plural), gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter), case (nominative, accusative, genitive, etc.), and countability (whether they can be counted or are uncountable). Collectively, these characteristics facilitate a nuanced understanding and systematic classification of nouns within linguistic frameworks. However, the presence and application of these features are not uniform across all languages. For instance, Sogdian nouns exhibit gender, number, and case distinctions, and these categories are also applicable to adjectives, pronouns, verbal adjectives, verbal nouns, and other related lexical categories. In contrast, Old Uighur nouns possess only number and case distinctions, lacking gender distinctions entirely. This variability underscores the necessity for a language-specific approach to grammatical analysis, as each language organizes its grammatical features in distinct ways.

Sogdian, as a prominent member of the Eastern Middle Iranian language family

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Sogdian

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Sogdian

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Sogdian

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Many lexical items, though absent from historical documentation, but are still alive in the vernacular of contemporary speakers. For instance, the contemporary Uighur dialectal word

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Nouns represent a highly replicable lexical category, and the transfer of vocabulary between languages often begins with the borrowing of nouns. This phenomenon underscores the importance of examining the structural characteristics of nouns in languages that have undergone extensive contact. This study not only introduces the characteristics and typology of Sogdian nouns but also aids in identifying loanwords in Altaic and other related languages. By examining the morphological and semantic properties of Sogdian nouns, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of linguistic contact and lexical diffusion in the broader context of historical and comparative linguistics.

While the Sogdian noun has been extensively documented in seminal works such as those by

[5][1, P. 69–79][23, P. 279–335][17]

In addition to these limitations, it is important to note that the Sogdian language, as a critical component of the broader Iranian linguistic family, has been subject to significant scholarly attention. However, much of this research has focused on broader historical, cultural, or comparative aspects rather than delving deeply into the specific grammatical features of the Sogdian noun system. As a result, there remains a notable gap in the literature regarding a detailed, contemporary analysis of the Sogdian noun within a unified linguistic framework.

To address this gap and contribute to the ongoing discourse on Sogdian linguistics, the present paper adopts a focused and systematic approach. Specifically, it concentrates exclusively on the Sogdian noun, aiming to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of its structure, inflectional patterns, and syntactic behavior. By employing a descriptive methodology grounded in modern linguistic theory, this study seeks to elucidate the complexities of the Sogdian noun system through rigorous empirical analysis and theoretical interpretation. This approach not only fills the existing gap in the literature but also offers a fresh perspective that leverages contemporary linguistic tools and frameworks to advance our understanding of this historically significant language.

2. Nouns and Their Types

All languages possess an open class of nouns, which typically comprises thousands of members and is perpetually expanding. These nouns can be categorized into two primary types: concrete and abstract. Concrete nouns refer to tangible entities, such as ‘girl’, ‘tiger’, ‘hill’, ‘stone’, ‘water’, and ‘head’. In contrast, abstract nouns denote intangible concepts, such as ‘beauty’ and ‘hunger’. Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives (e.g., ‘ugliness’ from ‘ugly’) or verbs (e.g., ‘thought’ from ‘think’). However, in some languages, these abstract concepts are expressed exclusively through adjectives and verbs, rather than as standalone nouns

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In the Sogdian language, a rich lexical inventory exists to denote both concrete and abstract entities. Some of these nouns are derived from other word classes, while others are considered basic lexical items.

The morphological structure of Sogdian words is characterized by a combination of ‘stem’ and ‘ending’. Typically, the ‘ending’ encodes grammatical features such as case and number for nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbal nouns, as well as person endings for verbs. By removing the inflectional ‘ending’ from nouns, verbs, and other word classes, the underlying ‘stem’ is revealed. Stress in Sogdian generally falls on the first long vowel within the initial syllable. If the ‘stem’ contains a long vowel, stress is assigned to the ‘stem’. Conversely, if the ‘stem’ lacks a long vowel, stress falls on the ‘ending’, regardless of whether the ‘ending’ itself contains a long vowel. This stress pattern divides all Sogdian words into two categories: heavy stem words and light stem words. This bipartite system, known as the ‘rhythmic law’ of Sogdian, governs the inflection, conjugation, and formation of all words. For nouns, this law influences the realization of number and case forms, as well as their composition and derivation. In Sogdian, nouns rarely appear in their uninflected or stem forms within sentences. Even the nominative case, which often exhibits zero realization in many languages, possesses distinct endings. Additionally, nouns exhibit different inflectional patterns based on their gender (feminine, neuter, or masculine). Therefore, before engaging in a detailed analysis of Sogdian nouns, it is essential to first extract their stem forms. For example:

fǝšyāwǝs<fšy’ws> ‘gentleman’

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The words discussed above have been extracted in their stem forms; however, in actual textual contexts, they typically appear in inflected forms. This distinction highlights the importance of understanding both the underlying morphological structure and the surface realization of nouns in linguistic analysis. In traditional linguistic studies, nouns are commonly categorized into two primary types: common nouns and proper nouns. While this binary classification is straightforward and widely applied, it may not fully capture the complexity and diversity of noun types in certain languages. To address this limitation, Tohti

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Building on this approach, the present study aims to classify and explore Sogdian nouns from multiple perspectives and novel angles. By applying Tohti’s extended classification system, this research seeks to provide a more detailed and nuanced understanding of the morphological, syntactic, and semantic properties of Sogdian nouns. This approach not only enriches our knowledge of the Sogdian language but also offers valuable insights into the broader linguistic phenomena of noun categorization and inflectional morphology.

3. The Traditional Three Types

Nouns may be categorized based on their referential functions into three traditional types: common nouns, proper nouns, and generic nouns. Additionally, the concept of noun prototypes is introduced to describe the uninflected, original form of a noun, which exists prior to any morphological modification or combination with other linguistic components. In the context of Sogdian, nouns undergo morphological changes whenever they are incorporated into syntactic structures. Even when they appear to exhibit zero inflection, these nouns still bear implicit morphological markings. Consequently, the stem form of a Sogdian noun is virtually never encountered in its pristine state within a sentence. Instead, the forms of nouns that are extracted from sentences for analysis—whether common, proper, or generic—are already subject to some degree of inflectional modification.

Common nouns are a fundamental lexical category that denotes general classes of entities or abstract concepts, rather than specific instances. These nouns provide a generic label for a category of objects, phenomena, or ideas, thereby facilitating the expression of generalizations and classifications within a language. Common nouns are essential for conveying broad semantic categories and are often contrasted with proper nouns, which refer to unique, specific entities. For example:

γǝr<γr> ‘mountain’ (M178), nērǝk/ nērē <nyrk> ‘male’ (m178), δβǝr<δβr> ‘door’ (M178), wāčǝrǝn<w’črn> ‘market’ (M178), sǝmān<sm’n> ‘sky’ (M178), mǝrγārt<mrγ’rt > ‘pearl’

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The examination of the nouns listed above reveals several terms that appear in historical documents, thereby shedding light on the interactions between Turkic and Sogdian peoples. For instance, the name of the Turkic emperor who reigned from 595 to 604 CE was Niri Qaghan

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Proper nouns constitute a distinct category of nouns that function as unique identifiers for specific entities. These special names differentiate objects of one type from others and typically refer to the names of individuals, countries, regions, institutions, books, periodicals, ethnic groups, and other particular entities. In phonemic writing systems, the initial letter of a proper noun is conventionally capitalized to distinguish it from common nouns. However, in the transcription of older languages, proper nouns are often rendered in lowercase to adhere to historical orthographic conventions. For example:

zǝrwā βǝγ<zrw’ βγ> ‘Zurvan, Father of Greatness’ (M178), ardāwān māṭ<’rd’w’n m’ṭ> ‘Mother of the Righteous’ (M178), xšēšpǝṭ βǝγ<xšyšpṭ βγ> ‘Splenditenens’

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Regarding the Manichaean gods, Sundermann

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Several proper names listed above contain references to Manichaean deities, highlighting the complex interplay between religious terminologies and cultural adaptations. For instance, the term

Central Asian Manichaeans adopted the term Zurvan to denote the God of light, thereby recontextualizing it within the Manichaean cosmology. This adaptation reflects the dynamic process of religious syncretism, wherein elements from one tradition are integrated into another while retaining some of their original characteristics. When the Old Uighurs converted to Manichaeism, they absorbed numerous Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian Manichaean terms. Consequently, Zurvan evolved into

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Generic nouns represent a lexical category that denotes a class or group of entities sharing a common characteristic. This category is particularly prevalent across all Altaic languages, where it serves as a productive means of expressing collective or generalized meanings. In the Uighur language, for instance, generic nouns are formed through several distinct morphological processes. Firstly, generic nouns can be created by pairing a rhyming component that begins with the consonant sounds ‘p’ or ‘m’. The rhyming component functions to broaden the semantic scope of the paired word. For example,

črāγ ǝti δ(/l)ǝmtēr <cr’γ ZY δmtyr> ‘lamp and torches’ (črāγ ‘lamp’, δǝmtēr/lǝmtēr ‘lamp, torch’~ Greek. lampter)

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In the Sogdian language, generic nouns may be constructed by combining two or three semantically related nouns through the conjunction

tāyǝt ǝti δēmǝβēnd <t’yt ZY δymβynt> ‘thieves and jugglers’ (tāyǝt ‘thieves’, δēmǝβēnd ‘jugglers’)

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In these constructions, each noun may be preceded by various grammatical elements such as definite articles, prepositions, negations, or other modifiers. These elements serve to further specify or contextualize the nouns within the compound structure. For example:

pǝr γǝrfu δāy ǝti pǝr γǝrfu βǝntēt <pr γrβw δ’yh ZY pr γrβw βnt’yt> ‘for the many maidservants and slaves’ (δāy ‘female slave’, βǝntē ‘slave’, pǝr ‘for, on, in’), pǝru mǝzēxku xānē ǝti pǝr kǝtyāk <prw RBw γ’n’kh ZY pr kty’kh> ‘for the great house and household’ (xānā ‘house’, kǝtyāk ‘house’), nē ǝspāxšt ǝti nē pǝrmānpǝtγōšē <L’ ’sp’γšt ZY L’ prm’nptγwš’k>‘(he finds) neither menial nor servant’ (ǝspāxšt ‘servant’, pǝrmānpǝtγōšē ‘obidient’, nē ‘no’), nē mǝrāz ǝti nē pǝstkārē <L’ mr’z ZY L’ pstk’r’k > ‘(he finds) neither hireling nor helper’ (mǝrāz ‘hireling, worker’, pǝstkārē ‘helper, assistant’)

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4. The New Four Types

In addition to the traditional classifications of nouns, recent linguistic analyses have identified four additional types that warrant separate categorization: temporal nouns, locational nouns, nouns denoting body parts, and kinship terminologies. These categories reflect specific semantic and functional characteristics that distinguish them from other types of nouns. In the Sogdian language, each of these newly defined types is represented by distinct lexical items and morphological patterns, thereby enriching the overall understanding of the language’s nominal system.

Temporal nouns are a specialized category of lexical items that specifically denote time-related concepts, including periods, durations, and temporal sequences. These nouns play a crucial role in expressing temporal references within linguistic structures, thereby facilitating the precise conveyance of time-related information. In the Sogdian language, temporal nouns are characterized by their unique morphological and syntactic properties, which distinguish them from other nominal categories. For example:

žəmnu<jmnw> ‘time, hour’

(M767iiR), (M767iiR), (M767iiR), [11, P. 483](M767iiR), M767iiR[11, P. 480–481][11, P. 481][9, P. 35][12, P. 154][9, P. 85][12, P. 149][9, P. 45][4, P. 313][12, P. 151][9, P. 39][12, P. 149][9, P. 39]

In Sogdian, the seven days of the week are expressed through a unique combination of specialized numerals and the temporal marker

ēwšǝmbēδ<i šmbδ> ‘sunday’, (ǝ)δušǝmbēδ <ii šmbyd> ‘monday’

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In the Sogdian language, each day and month possesses a unique, specialized name that reflects its distinct temporal and cultural significance. Many of these names are derived from the names of Manichaean deities and celestial bodies, highlighting the influence of religious and astronomical concepts on the Sogdian temporal lexicon. This practice of naming days and months after deities and celestial objects was not only prevalent in Sogdian but also extended to other languages and cultures influenced by Manichaean traditions. Notably, some of these specialized temporal nouns were later borrowed by Old Uighur Manichaeans, who adopted and adapted these terms to fit their own linguistic and cultural contexts. This linguistic borrowing underscores the extensive cultural and religious interactions between the Sogdians and the Uighurs, as well as the broader transmission of Manichaean ideas and practices across Central Asia. For example:

kēwān<kyw’n> ‘saturn; saturday’

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Manichaean missionaries introduced the names of the days of the week, following the Babylonian tradition, to the Sogdian and Uighur regions. The Sogdians, following this tradition, named the seven days of the week after the seven visible celestial bodies. To these names, they appended the unique Babylonian term

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In Uighur Manichaean texts, the names for Sunday and Monday are consistent with their Sogdian counterparts, having been translated verbatim from the Sogdian language. For example:

– Sog.

– Sog.

This consistency reflects the linguistic and cultural continuity between the two regions. Additionally, certain days within the month held special significance for Manichaeans. Consequently, the Uighur Manichaeans adopted the Sogdian names for these days to convey their unique religious and cultural importance. For example, the names of the days, as documented in Old Uighur manuscripts, are: nawsrδyč (nau-sarδič) ‘first day’, psakyč (pasākič) ‘fourth day’, myšy (miši) ‘16thMissing Mark : sup day’, srwš (srōš) ‘17thMissing Mark : sup day’, zmwγtwγ (zamuxtūγ) ‘28thMissing Mark : sup day’, nγrn (niγrān) ‘30thMissing Mark : sup day’

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Locational nouns (LNs) constitute a distinct lexical category that specifically denotes spatial aspects or orientations of objects. These nouns are characterized by their ability to convey positional information, often indicating the side, direction, or location relative to another entity. In many languages, locational nouns play a crucial role in spatial reference systems, providing a means to express spatial relationships with precision and clarity.

In the context of Sogdian, locational nouns are particularly significant due to their role in encoding spatial semantics. These nouns often derive from more general terms but acquire specialized meanings related to spatial orientation. For example:

čendǝr <cyndr> ‘inside’ (M178), ǝskī<’skyy> ‘upward’

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The posposition

In certain grammatical traditions, locational nouns frequently function concurrently as locative adverbs. Therefore, most scholars don’t treat them as nouns. This dual characteristic endows such nouns with a unique status within the grammatical framework. This bicharacteristic, or dual functionality, distinguishes them from other nouns by allowing them to serve both nominal and adverbial roles, thereby enriching the syntactic flexibility of the language.

This category of nouns specifically refers to terms that designate various organs or anatomical structures of the human or animal body. These lexical items are essential for conveying precise information related to physiology, medicine, and everyday descriptions of bodily functions and appearances. In many languages, including Sogdian, such nouns often exhibit unique morphological and semantic characteristics, reflecting their specialized function within the lexicon. For example:

δǝst<δst> ‘hand’

[11, P. 475][9, P. 38][18, P. 20]γərδ<γrδ> ‘neck’ (M5030R4-9), [18, P. 29][24, P. 74]

In the Sogdian Manichaean, certain terminologies are constructed from body parts, for example, the term

Kinship terminologies represent a specialized subset of nouns that specifically denote familial relationships and social bonds among individuals. These terms are crucial for expressing genealogical connections, social hierarchies, and cultural norms related to family structures. Kinship terminologies often exhibit intricate patterns of semantic specificity and cultural significance, reflecting the complex social dynamics and relational paradigms within a given linguistic community.

In the Sogdian language, kinship terms are particularly noteworthy for their precision and the nuanced distinctions they convey. These nouns not only identify biological relationships but also encode social roles and familial obligations, thereby serving as a linguistic reflection of Sogdian sociocultural values. For example:

māzēč māt <m’z-’ych m’th> ‘stepmother’

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5. Conclusion

Nouns constitute an essential lexical category in any language, serving as the fundamental building blocks for conveying meaning and structure within syntactic frameworks. In the Sogdian language, the morphological complexity of nouns is particularly noteworthy, as they undergo inflectional changes as soon as they are incorporated into a sentence. This feature makes it challenging to identify the stem forms of nouns directly from textual sources. Consequently, the analysis of Sogdian nouns necessitates a systematic approach, beginning with the extraction of stem forms from their inflected states in sentences, followed by classification according to established criteria.

All Sogdian words, including nouns, are categorized into two primary morphological types: heavy stems and light stems. This bipartite classification is based on the phonological and morphological properties of the word, influencing its inflectional behavior. Sogdian nouns exhibit a rich paradigm of grammatical features, including three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), three numbers (singular and plural and numerative forms. However, since the numerative behaves like a case, it could also be treated as such, see Yoshida

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Due to the pervasive nature of these grammatical categories, they are not confined solely to nouns but also extend to other parts of speech, such as adjectives, pronouns, gerunds, and verbs. This extensive application of inflectional paradigms across multiple lexical categories necessitates a detailed and separate examination of each category to fully understand their morphological and syntactic functions within the Sogdian language.

The additional file for this article can be found as follows: